A Sample Application Using Object-Relational Features

Customer_reltab

The Customer_reltab table has the following definition:

-- Creating the Customer_reltab Table example, relational model, not sample schema
CREATE TABLE Customer_reltab (
  CustNo                NUMBER NOT NULL,
  CustName              VARCHAR2(200) NOT NULL,
  Street                VARCHAR2(200) NOT NULL,
  City                  VARCHAR2(200) NOT NULL,
  State                 CHAR(2) NOT NULL,
  Zip                   VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL,
  Phone1                VARCHAR2(20),
  Phone2                VARCHAR2(20),
  Phone3                VARCHAR2(20),
  PRIMARY KEY (CustNo));

This table, Customer_reltab, stores all the information about customers, which means that it fully contains information that is intrinsic to the customer (defined with the NOT NULL constraint) and information that is not as essential. According to this definition of the table, the application requires that every customer have a shipping address.

Our Entity-Relationship (E-R) diagram showed a customer placing an order, but the table does not make allowance for any relationship between the customer and the purchase order. This relationship must be managed by the purchase order.

PurchaseOrder_reltab

The PurchaseOrder_reltab table has the following definition:

-- Creating the PurchaseOrder_reltab Table example, relational model
-- not sample schema
CREATE TABLE PurchaseOrder_reltab (    
   PONo        NUMBER, /* purchase order no */  
   Custno      NUMBER references Customer_reltab, /*  Foreign KEY referencing 
                                                      customer */
   OrderDate   DATE, /*  date of order */  
   ShipDate    DATE, /* date to be shipped */    
   ToStreet    VARCHAR2(200), /* shipto address */    
   ToCity      VARCHAR2(200),    
   ToState     CHAR(2),    
   ToZip       VARCHAR2(20),    
   PRIMARY KEY(PONo));   
  

Stock_reltab

The Stock_reltab table has the following definition:

-- Creating the Stock_reltab Table example, relational model, not sample schema
CREATE TABLE Stock_reltab (
  StockNo      NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,
  Price        NUMBER,
  TaxRate      NUMBER);

LineItems_reltab

The LineItems_reltab table has the following definition:

-- Creating the LineItems_reltab Table example, 
-- relational model, not sample schema
CREATE TABLE LineItems_reltab (
  LineItemNo           NUMBER,
  PONo                 NUMBER REFERENCES PurchaseOrder_reltab,
  StockNo              NUMBER REFERENCES Stock_reltab,
  Quantity             NUMBER,
  Discount             NUMBER,
  PRIMARY KEY (PONo, LineItemNo));

The table name is in the plural form LineItems_reltab to emphasize to someone reading the code that the table holds a collection of line items.

As shown in the E-R diagram, the list of line items has relationships with both the purchase order and the stock item. These relationships are managed by LineItems_reltab by means of two foreign key columns:

• PONo, which references the PONo column in PurchaseOrder_reltab

• StockNo, which references the StockNo column in Stock_reltab

The getPONo Method

The getPONo method simply returns the value of the PONo attribute—namely, the purchase order number—of whatever instance of the type PurchaseOrder_objtyp that calls the method. Such get methods allow you to avoid reworking code that uses the object if its internal representation changes.

The sumLineItems Method

The sumLineItems method uses a number of object-relational features:

• As already noted, the basic function of the sumLineItems method is to return the sum of the values of the line items of its associated PurchaseOrder_objtyp object. The keyword SELF, which is implicitly created as a parameter to every function, lets you refer to that object.

• The keyword COUNT gives the count of the number of elements in a PL/SQL table or array. Here, in combination with LOOP, the application iterates through all the elements in the collection — in this case, the items of the purchase order. In this way SELF.LineItemList_ntab.COUNT counts the number of elements in the nested table that match the LineItemList_ntab attribute of the PurchaseOrder_objtyp object, here represented by SELF.

• A method from package UTL_REF is used in the implementation. The UTL_REF methods are necessary because Oracle does not support implicit dereferencing of REFs within PL/SQL programs. The UTL_REF package provides methods that operate on object references. Here, the SELECT_OBJECT method is called to obtain the StockItem_objtyp object corresponding to the Stock_ref.

The AUTHID CURRENT_USER syntax specifies that the PurchaseOrder_objtyp is defined using invoker rights: the methods are executed under the rights of the current user, not under the rights of the user who defined the type.

• The PL/SQL variable StockVal is of type StockItem_objtyp. The UTL_REF.SELECT_OBJECT sets it to the object whose reference is the following:

  (LineItemList_ntab(i).Stock_ref)

  This object is the actual stock item referred to in the currently selected line item.

• Having retrieved the stock item in question, the next step is to compute its cost. The program refers to the stock item's cost as StockVal.Price, the Price attribute of the StockItem_objtyp object. But to compute the cost of the item, you also need to know the quantity of items ordered. In the application, the term LineItemList_ntab(i).Quantity represents the Quantity attribute of the currently selected LineItem_objtyp object.

The remainder of the method program is a loop that sums the values of the line items. The method returns the total.

The compareCustOrders Method

The following statement defines the compareCustOrders method in the type body of the Customer_objtyp object type:

-- Creating the Customer_objtyp Type Body example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE BODY Customer_objtyp AS
  ORDER MEMBER FUNCTION
  compareCustOrders (x IN Customer_objtyp) RETURN INTEGER IS
  BEGIN
    RETURN CustNo - x.CustNo;
  END;
END;
/

As mentioned earlier, the order method compareCustOrders operation compares information about two customer orders. It takes another Customer_objtyp object as an input argument and returns the difference of the two CustNo numbers. The return value is:

• A negative number if its own object has a smaller value of CustNo

• A positive number if its own object has a larger value of CustNo

• zero if the two objects have the same value of CustNo—in which case both orders are associated with the same customer.

Whether the return value is positive, negative, or zero signifies the relative order of the customer numbers. For example, perhaps lower numbers are created earlier in time than higher numbers. If either of the input arguments (SELF and the explicit argument) to an ORDER method is NULL, Oracle does not call the ORDER method and simply treats the result as NULL.

We have now defined all of the object types for the object-relational version of the purchase order schema. We have not yet created any instances of these types to contain actual purchase order data, nor have we created any tables in which to store such data. We show how to do this in the next section.

The Object Table Customer_objtab

The following statement defines an object table Customer_objtab to hold objects of type Customer_objtyp:

-- Creating the Customer_objtab table example, not sample schema
CREATE TABLE Customer_objtab OF Customer_objtyp (CustNo PRIMARY KEY) 
   OBJECT IDENTIFIER IS PRIMARY KEY;

Unlike relational tables, when you create an object table, you specify a data type for it, namely, the type of objects it will contain.

The table has a column for each attribute of Customer_objtyp, namely:

See Example A-18, "Creating the Address_objtyp Object" and Example A-17, "Creating the PhoneList_vartyp Type" for the definitions of those types.

Figure A-3 Object Relational Representation of Table Customer_objtab

Description of "Figure A-3 Object Relational Representation of Table Customer_objtab"

The Object Table Stock_objtab

The following statement creates an object table for StockItem_objtyp objects:

-- Creating the Stock_objtab Table example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
CREATE TABLE Stock_objtab OF StockItem_objtyp (StockNo PRIMARY KEY)
   OBJECT IDENTIFIER IS PRIMARY KEY;

Each row of the table is a StockItem_objtyp object having three numeric attributes:

Oracle creates a column for each attribute. The CREATE TABLE statement places a primary key constraint on the StockNo column and specifies that the primary key be used as the row object's identifier.

The Object Table PurchaseOrder_objtab

The following statement defines an object table for PurchaseOrder_objtyp objects:

-- Creating the PurchaseOrder_objtab Table example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
CREATE TABLE PurchaseOrder_objtab OF PurchaseOrder_objtyp (  /* Line 1 */
   PRIMARY KEY (PONo),                                       /* Line 2 */
   FOREIGN KEY (Cust_ref) REFERENCES Customer_objtab)        /* Line 3 */
   OBJECT IDENTIFIER IS PRIMARY KEY                          /* Line 4 */
   NESTED TABLE LineItemList_ntab STORE AS PoLine_ntab (     /* Line 5 */
     (PRIMARY KEY(NESTED_TABLE_ID, LineItemNo))              /* Line 6 */
     ORGANIZATION INDEX COMPRESS)                            /* Line 7 */
   RETURN AS LOCATOR                                         /* Line 8 */
/   

The preceding CREATE TABLE statement creates the PurchaseOrder_objtab object table. The significance of each line is as follows:

Line 1:

This line indicates that each row of the table is a PurchaseOrder_objtyp object. Attributes of PurchaseOrder_objtyp objects are:

See Example A-19, "Creating the Customer_objtyp Object" and Example A-20, "Creating the LineItemList_ntabtyp Type" for the definitions of those types.

Figure A-4 Object Relational Representation of Table PurchaseOrder_objtab

Description of "Figure A-4 Object Relational Representation of Table PurchaseOrder_objtab"

Line 2:

PRIMARY KEY (PONo),

This line specifies that the PONo attribute is the primary key for the table.

Line 3:

FOREIGN KEY (Cust_ref) REFERENCES Customer_objtab)

This line specifies a referential constraint on the Cust_ref column. This referential constraint is similar to those specified for relational tables. When there is no constraint, the REF column permits you to reference any row object. However, in this case, the Cust_ref REFs can refer only to row objects in the Customer_objtab object table.

Line 4:

OBJECT IDENTIFIER IS PRIMARY KEY

This line indicates that the primary key of the PurchaseOrder_objtab object table be used as the row's OID.

Line 5 - 8:

These lines pertain to the storage specification and properties of the nested table column, LineItemList_ntab. The rows of a nested table are stored in a separate storage table. This storage table cannot be directly queried by the user but can be referenced in DDL statements for maintenance purposes. A hidden column in the storage table, called the NESTED_TABLE_ID, matches the rows with their corresponding parent row. All the elements in the nested table belonging to a particular parent have the same NESTED_TABLE_ID value. For example, all the elements of the nested table of a given row of PurchaseOrder_objtab have the same value of NESTED_TABLE_ID. The nested table elements that belong to a different row of PurchaseOrder_objtab have a different value of NESTED_TABLE_ID.

In the preceding CREATE TABLE example, Line 5 indicates that the rows of LineItemList_ntab nested table are to be stored in a separate table (referred to as the storage table) named PoLine_ntab. The STORE AS clause also permits you to specify the constraint and storage specification for the storage table. In this example, Line 7 indicates that the storage table is an index-organized table (IOT). In general, storing nested table rows in an IOT is beneficial because it provides clustering of rows belonging to the same parent. The specification of COMPRESS on the IOT saves storage space because, if you do not specify COMPRESS, the NESTED_TABLE_ID part of the IOT's key is repeated for every row of a parent row object. If, however, you specify COMPRESS, the NESTED_TABLE_ID is stored only once for each parent row object.

In Line 6, the specification of NESTED_TABLE_ID and LineItemNo attribute as the primary key for the storage table serves two purposes: first, it specifies the key for the IOT; second, it enforces uniqueness of the column LineItemNo of the nested table within each row of the parent table. By including the LineItemNo column in the key, the statement ensures that the LineItemNo column contains distinct values within each purchase order.

Line 8 indicates that the nested table, LineItemList_ntab, is returned in the locator form when retrieved. If you do not specify LOCATOR, the default is VALUE, which causes the entire nested table to be returned instead of just a locator to it. If a nested table collection contains many elements, it is inefficient to return the entire nested table whenever the containing row object or the column is selected.

Specifying that the nested table's locator is returned enables Oracle to send the client only a locator to the actual collection value. An application can find whether a fetched nested table is in the locator or value form by calling the OCICollIsLocator or UTL_COLL.IS_LOCATOR interfaces. Once you know that the locator has been returned, the application can query using the locator to fetch only the desired subset of row elements in the nested table. This locator-based retrieval of the nested table rows is based on the original statement's snapshot, to preserve the value or copy semantics of the nested table. That is, when the locator is used to fetch a subset of row elements in the nested table, the nested table snapshot reflects the nested table when the locator was first retrieved.

Recall the implementation of the sumLineItems method of PurchaseOrder_objtyp in "Method Definitions". That implementation assumed that the LineItemList_ntab nested table would be returned as a VALUE. In order to handle large nested tables more efficiently, and to take advantage of the fact that the nested table in the PurchaseOrder_objtab is returned as a locator, the sumLineItems method must be rewritten as follows:

-- Replacing the PurchaseOrder_objtyp Type Body example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE BODY PurchaseOrder_objtyp AS 

   MAP MEMBER FUNCTION getPONo RETURN NUMBER is   
      BEGIN  
         RETURN PONo;   
      END;   
    
   MEMBER FUNCTION sumLineItems RETURN NUMBER IS  
      i          INTEGER;  
      StockVal   StockItem_objtyp;  
      Total      NUMBER := 0;
  
   BEGIN
      IF (UTL_COLL.IS_LOCATOR(LineItemList_ntab)) -- check for locator
         THEN
            SELECT SUM(L.Quantity * L.Stock_ref.Price) INTO Total
            FROM   TABLE(CAST(LineItemList_ntab AS LineItemList_ntabtyp)) L;
      ELSE
         FOR i in 1..SELF.LineItemList_ntab.COUNT LOOP  
            UTL_REF.SELECT_OBJECT(LineItemList_ntab(i).Stock_ref,StockVal);  
            Total := Total + SELF.LineItemList_ntab(i).Quantity * 
                                                            StockVal.Price;  
         END LOOP;  
      END IF;  
   RETURN Total;  
   END;  
END;     
/

The rewritten sumLineItems method checks whether the nested table attribute, LineItemList_ntab, is returned as a locator using the UTL_COLL.IS_LOCATOR function. If the condition evaluates to TRUE, the nested table locator is queried using the TABLE expression.

The querying of the nested table locator results in more efficient processing of the large line item list of a purchase order. The previous code that iterates over the LineItemList_ntab is kept to deal with the case where the nested table is returned as a VALUE.

After the table is created, the ALTER TABLE statement is issued to add the SCOPE FOR constraint on a REF. The SCOPE FOR constraint on a REF is not allowed in a CREATE TABLE statement. To specify that Stock_ref can reference only the object table Stock_objtab, issue the following ALTER TABLE statement on the PoLine_ntab storage table:

-- Adding the SCOPE FOR Constraint example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
ALTER TABLE PoLine_ntab
   ADD (SCOPE FOR (Stock_ref) IS stock_objtab) ;

This statement specifies that the Stock_ref column of the nested table is scoped to Stock_objtab. This indicates that the values stored in this column must be references to row objects in Stock_objtab. The SCOPE constraint is different from the referential constraint in that the SCOPE constraint has no dependency on the referenced object. For example, any referenced row object in Stock_objtab may be deleted, even if it is referenced in the Stock_ref column of the nested table. Such a deletion renders the corresponding reference in the nested table a DANGLING REF.

Figure A-5 Object Relational Representation of Nested Table LineItemList_ntab

Description of "Figure A-5 Object Relational Representation of Nested Table LineItemList_ntab"

Oracle does not support a referential constraint specification for storage tables. In this situation, specifying the SCOPE clause for a REF column is useful. In general, specifying scope or referential constraints for REF columns has several benefits:

• It saves storage space because it allows Oracle to store just the row object's unique identifier as the REF value in the column.

• It enables an index to be created on the storage table's REF column.

• It allows Oracle to rewrite queries containing dereferences of these REFs as joins involving the referenced table.

At this point, all of the tables for the purchase order application are in place. The next section shows how to operate on these tables.

Figure A-6 Object Relational Representation of Table PurchaseOrder_objtab

Description of "Figure A-6 Object Relational Representation of Table PurchaseOrder_objtab"

Inserting Values

Here is how to insert the same data into the object tables that we inserted earlier into relational tables. Notice how some of the values incorporate calls to the constructors for object types, to create instances of the types.

-- Inserting Values in Stock_objtab example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
INSERT INTO Stock_objtab VALUES(1004, 6750.00, 2) ;
INSERT INTO Stock_objtab VALUES(1011, 4500.23, 2) ;
INSERT INTO Stock_objtab VALUES(1534, 2234.00, 2) ;
INSERT INTO Stock_objtab VALUES(1535, 3456.23, 2) ;

-- Inserting Values in Customer_objtab example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
INSERT INTO Customer_objtab
  VALUES (
    1, 'Jean Nance',
    Address_objtyp('2 Avocet Drive', 'Redwood Shores', 'CA', '95054'),
    PhoneList_vartyp('415-555-0102')
    ) ;

INSERT INTO Customer_objtab
  VALUES (
    2, 'John Nike',
    Address_objtyp('323 College Drive', 'Edison', 'NJ', '08820'),
    PhoneList_vartyp('609-555-0190','201-555-0140')
    ) ;

-- Inserting Values in PurchaseOrder_objtab example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
INSERT INTO PurchaseOrder_objtab
  SELECT  1001, REF(C),
          SYSDATE, '10-MAY-1999',
          LineItemList_ntabtyp(),
          NULL
   FROM   Customer_objtab C
   WHERE  C.CustNo = 1 ;

The preceding statement constructs a PurchaseOrder_objtyp object with the following attributes:

The statement uses a query to construct a REF to the row object in the Customer_objtab object table that has a CustNo value of 1.

The following statement uses a TABLE expression to identify the nested table as the target for the insertion, namely the nested table in the LineItemList_ntab column of the row object in the PurchaseOrder_objtab table that has a PONo value of 1001.

-- Inserting Values in LineItemList_ntab example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
INSERT INTO TABLE (
  SELECT  P.LineItemList_ntab
   FROM   PurchaseOrder_objtab P
   WHERE  P.PONo = 1001
  )
  SELECT  01, REF(S), 12, 0
   FROM   Stock_objtab S
   WHERE  S.StockNo = 1534 ;

The preceding statement inserts a line item into the nested table identified by the TABLE expression. The inserted line item contains a REF to the row object with a StockNo value of 1534 in the object table Stock_objtab.

The following statements follow the same pattern as the previous ones:

-- Inserting Values in PurchaseOrder_objtab and LineItemList_ntab example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
INSERT INTO PurchaseOrder_objtab
  SELECT  2001, REF(C),
          SYSDATE, '20-MAY-1997',
          LineItemList_ntabtyp(),
          Address_objtyp('55 Madison Ave','Madison','WI','53715')
   FROM   Customer_objtab C
   WHERE  C.CustNo = 2 ;

INSERT INTO TABLE (
  SELECT  P.LineItemList_ntab
   FROM   PurchaseOrder_objtab P
   WHERE  P.PONo = 1001
  )
  SELECT  02, REF(S), 10, 10
   FROM   Stock_objtab S
   WHERE  S.StockNo = 1535 ;

INSERT INTO TABLE (
  SELECT  P.LineItemList_ntab
   FROM   PurchaseOrder_objtab P
   WHERE  P.PONo = 2001
  )
  SELECT  10, REF(S), 1, 0
   FROM   Stock_objtab S
   WHERE  S.StockNo = 1004 ;

INSERT INTO TABLE (
  SELECT  P.LineItemList_ntab
   FROM   PurchaseOrder_objtab P
   WHERE  P.PONo = 2001
  )
  VALUES(11, (SELECT REF(S)
    FROM  Stock_objtab S
    WHERE S.StockNo = 1011), 2, 1) ;

Querying

The following query statement implicitly invokes a comparison method. It shows how Oracle orders objects of type PurchaseOrder_objtyp using that type's comparison method:

-- Query Purchase Orders example, object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT  p.PONo
 FROM   PurchaseOrder_objtab p
 ORDER BY VALUE(p) ;

Oracle invokes the map method getPONo for each PurchaseOrder_objtyp object in the selection. Because that method returns the object's PONo attribute, the selection produces a list of purchase order numbers in ascending numerical order.

The following queries correspond to the queries executed under the relational model.

-- Query Customer and Line Item Data for Purchase Order 1001 example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT  DEREF(p.Cust_ref), p.ShipToAddr_obj, p.PONo, 
        p.OrderDate, LineItemList_ntab
 FROM   PurchaseOrder_objtab p
 WHERE  p.PONo = 1001 ;

-- Query Total Value of Each Purchase Order example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT   p.PONo, p.sumLineItems()
 FROM    PurchaseOrder_objtab p ;

-- Query Purchase Order and Line Item Data for Stock Item 1004 example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT   po.PONo, po.Cust_ref.CustNo,
         CURSOR (
           SELECT  *
            FROM   TABLE (po.LineItemList_ntab) L
            WHERE  L.Stock_ref.StockNo = 1004
           )
 FROM    PurchaseOrder_objtab po ; 

The preceding query returns a nested cursor for the set of LineItem_obj objects selected from the nested table. The application can fetch from the nested cursor to get the individual LineItem_obj objects. The query can also be expressed by unnesting the nested set with respect to the outer result:

-- Query Purchase Order Unnested example, 
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT   po.PONo, po.Cust_ref.CustNo, L.*
 FROM    PurchaseOrder_objtab po, TABLE (po.LineItemList_ntab) L
 WHERE   L.Stock_ref.StockNo = 1004 ;

The preceding query returns the result set as a flattened form (or First Normal Form). This type of query is useful when accessing Oracle collection columns from relational tools and APIs, such as ODBC. In the preceding unnesting example, only the rows of the PurchaseOrder_objtab object table that have any LineItemList_ntab rows are returned. To fetch all rows of the PurchaseOrder_objtab table, regardless of the presence of any rows in their corresponding LineItemList_ntab, then the (+) operator is required:

-- Query Purchase Order Unnested All Rows example,
--  object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT   po.PONo, po.Cust_ref.CustNo, L.*
 FROM    PurchaseOrder_objtab po, TABLE (po.LineItemList_ntab) (+) L
 WHERE   L.Stock_ref.StockNo = 1004 ;

In Example A-38, the request requires querying the rows of all LineItemList_ntab nested tables of all PurchaseOrder_objtab rows. Again, unnesting is required:

-- Query Average Discount across all Line Items of all Purchase Orders example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT AVG(L.DISCOUNT)
  FROM PurchaseOrder_objtab po, TABLE (po.LineItemList_ntab) L ;

Deleting

The following example has the same effect as the two deletions needed in the relational case shown in Example A-13. In Example A-39, Oracle deletes the entire purchase order object, including its line items, in a single SQL operation. In the relational case, line items for the purchase order must be deleted from the line items table, and the purchase order must be separately deleted from the purchase orders table.

-- Delete Purchase Order 1001 in an Object-Relational Model example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
DELETE
 FROM   PurchaseOrder_objtab
 WHERE  PONo = 1001 ;

Inserting into Nested Tables

Each of the preceding INSERT statements has two main parts: a TABLE expression that specifies the target table of the insert operation, and a SELECT that gets the data to be inserted. The WHERE clause in each part picks out the customer object to receive the purchase orders (in the TABLE expression) and the customer whose purchase orders are to be selected (in the subquery that gets the purchase orders).

The WHERE clause in the subquery uses dot notation to navigate to the CustNo attribute: p.Cust_Ref.CustNo. Note that a table alias p is required whenever you use dot notation. To omit it and say instead Cust_Ref.CustNo would produce an error.

Another thing to note about the dot notation in this WHERE clause is that we are able to navigate to the CustNo attribute of a customer right through the Cust_Ref REF attribute of a purchase order. SQL (though not PL/SQL) implicitly dereferences a REF used with the dot notation in this way.

The TABLE expression in the first part of the INSERT statement tells the system to treat the collection returned by the expression as a table. The expression is used here to select the nested table of purchase orders for a particular customer as the target of the insert.

In the second part of the INSERT statement, the VALUE() function returns selected rows as objects. In this case, each row is a purchase order object, complete with its own collection of line items. Purchase order rows are selected from one table of type PurchaseOrder_objtyp for insertion into another table of that type.

The preceding INSERT statements use the customer-reference attribute of PurchaseOrder_objtyp to identify the customer to whom each of the existing purchase orders belongs. However, now that all the old purchase orders are copied from the purchase orders table into the upgraded Customer_objtab, this customer-reference attribute of a purchase order is obsolete. Now purchase orders are stored right in the customer object itself.

The following ALTER TYPE statement evolves PurchaseOrder_objtyp to drop the customer-reference attribute. The statement also drops the ShipToAddr_obj attribute as redundant, assuming that the shipping address is always the same as the customer address.

-- Alter PurchaseOrder_objtyp example, object-relational model, not sample schema
ALTER TYPE PurchaseOrder_objtyp
    DROP ATTRIBUTE Cust_ref,
    DROP ATTRIBUTE ShipToAddr_obj
    CASCADE;

This time we were able to use the CASCADE option to let the system perform validations and make all necessary changes to dependent types and tables.

Inserting a New Purchase Order with Line Items

The previous INSERT example showed how to use the VALUE() function to select and insert into the nested table of purchase orders an existing purchase order object complete with its own nested table of line items. The following example shows how to insert a new purchase order that has not already been instantiated as a purchase order object. In this case, the purchase order's nested table of line items must be instantiated, as well as each line item object with its data. Line numbers are shown on the left for reference.

-- Insert into LineItemList_ntabtyp with VALUE() example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
INSERT INTO TABLE (                                             /* Line 1  */
  SELECT c.PurchaseOrderList_ntab                               /* Line 2  */
    FROM Customer_objtab c                                      /* Line 3  */
    WHERE c.CustName = 'John Nike'                              /* Line 4  */
   )                                                            /* Line 5  */
  VALUES (1020, SYSDATE, SYSDATE + 1,                           /* Line 6  */
    LineItemList_ntabtyp(                                       /* Line 7  */
      LineItem_objtyp(1, MAKE_REF(Stock_objtab, 1004), 1, 0),   /* Line 8  */
      LineItem_objtyp(2, MAKE_REF(Stock_objtab, 1011), 3, 5),   /* Line 9  */
      LineItem_objtyp(3, MAKE_REF(Stock_objtab, 1535), 2, 10)   /* Line 10 */
      )                                                         /* Line 11 */
);                                                              /* Line 12 */

Lines 1-5 use a TABLE expression to select the nested table to insert into—namely, the nested table of purchase orders for customer John Nike.

The VALUES clause (lines 6-12) contains a value for each attribute of the new purchase order, namely:

Line 6 of the INSERT statement specifies values for the three purchase order attributes PONo, OrderDate, and ShipDate.

Only attribute values are given; no purchase order constructor is specified. You do not need to explicitly specify a purchase order constructor to instantiate a purchase order instance in the nested table because the nested table is declared to be a nested table of purchase orders. If you omit a purchase order constructor, the system instantiates a purchase order automatically. You can, however, specify the constructor if you want to, in which case the VALUES clause will look like this:

-- Insert into LineItemList_ntabtyp with VALUE() and PO constructor example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
INSERT INTO TABLE (
  SELECT c.PurchaseOrderList_ntab
    FROM Customer_objtab c
    WHERE c.CustName = 'John Nike'
   )
VALUES (
  PurchaseOrder_objtyp(1025, SYSDATE, SYSDATE + 1,
    LineItemList_ntabtyp(
      LineItem_objtyp(1, MAKE_REF(Stock_objtab, 1004), 1, 0),
      LineItem_objtyp(2, MAKE_REF(Stock_objtab, 1011), 3, 5),
      LineItem_objtyp(3, MAKE_REF(Stock_objtab, 1535), 2, 10)
     )
  )
)

Lines 7-11 instantiate and supply data for a nested table of line items. The constructor method LineItemList_ntabtyp(…) creates an instance of such a nested table that contains three line items.

The line item constructor LineItem_objtyp() creates an object instance for each line item. Values for line item attributes are supplied as arguments to the constructor.

The MAKE_REF function creates a REF for the Stock_ref attribute of a line item. The arguments to MAKE_REF are the name of the stock table and the primary key value of the stock item there that we want to reference. We can use MAKE_REF here because object identifiers in the stock table are based on the primary key: if they were not, we would have to use the REF function in a subquery to get a REF to a row in the stock table.

Querying Multilevel Nested Tables

You can query a top-level nested table column by naming it in the SELECT list like any other top-level (as opposed to embedded) column or attribute, but the result is not very readable. For instance, the following query selects the nested table of purchase orders for John Nike:

-- Query Customer_objtab for Customer John Nike example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT c.PurchaseOrderList_ntab
   FROM Customer_objtab c
   WHERE CustName = 'John Nike';

The query produces a result similar to the following:

--  output from example
PURCHASEORDERLIST_NTAB(PONO, ORDERDATE, SHIPDATE, LINEITEMLIST_NTAB(LINEITEMNO,
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PURCHASEORDERLIST_NTABTYP(PURCHASEORDER_OBJTYP(2001, '25-SEP-01', '20-MAY-97', L
INEITEMLIST_NTABTYP(LINEITEM_OBJTYP(10, 00004A038A00468ED552CE6A5803ACE034080020
B8C8340000001426010001000100290000000000090600812A00078401FE0000000B03C20B050000
...

For humans, at least, you probably want to display the instance data in an unnested form and not to show the REFs at all. TABLE expressions—this time in the FROM clause of a query—can help you do this.

For example, the query in Example A-48 selects the PO number, order date, and shipdate for all purchase orders belonging to John Nike:

-- Query Customer_objtab Using TABLE Expression example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT p.PONo, p.OrderDate, p.Shipdate
    FROM Customer_objtab c, TABLE(c.PurchaseOrderList_ntab) p
    WHERE c.CustName = 'John Nike';

A TABLE expression takes a collection as an argument and can be used like a SQL table in SQL statements. In the preceding query, listing the nested table of purchase orders in a TABLE expression in the FROM clause enables us to select columns of the nested table just as if they were columns of an ordinary table. The columns are identified as belonging to the nested table by the table alias they use: p. As the example shows, a TABLE expression in the FROM clause can have its own table alias.

Inside the TABLE expression, the nested table is identified as a column of customer table Customer_objtab by the customer table's own table alias c. Note that the table Customer_objtab appears in the FROM clause before the TABLE expression that refers to it. This ability of a TABLE expressions to make use of a table alias that occurs to the left of it in the FROM clause is called left correlation. It enables you to daisy-chain tables and TABLE expressions—including TABLE expressions that make use of the table alias of another TABLE expression. In fact, this is how you are able to select columns of nested tables that are embedded in other nested tables.

Here, for example, is a query that selects information about all line items for PO number 1020:

-- Query Customer_objtab for Purchase Order 1020 example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT p.PONo, i.LineItemNo, i.Stock_ref.StockNo, i.Quantity, i.Discount
  FROM Customer_objtab c, TABLE(c.PurchaseOrderList_ntab) p,
    TABLE(p.LineItemList_ntab) i
  WHERE p.PONo = 1020;
 

The query uses two TABLE expressions, the second referring to the first. Line item information is selected from the inner nested table that belongs to purchase order number 1020 in the outer nested table.

Notice that no column from the customer table occurs in either the SELECT list or the WHERE clause. The customer table is listed in the FROM clause solely to provide a starting point from which to access the nested tables.

Here is a variation on the preceding query. This version shows that you can use the * wildcard to specify all columns of a TABLE expression collection:

-- Query Customer_objtab for Purchase Order 1020 for all columns with * example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT p.PONo, i.*
  FROM Customer_objtab c, TABLE(c.PurchaseOrderList_ntab) p,
    TABLE(p.LineItemList_ntab) i
  WHERE p.PONo = 1020;

Creating a Subtype

You can create a subtype under a base type only if the base type allows subtypes. Whether a type can be subtyped depends on the type's FINAL property. By default, new types are created as FINAL. This means that they are the last of the series and cannot have subtypes created under them. To create a type that can be subtyped, you must specify NOT FINAL in the CREATE TYPE statement as we did when we created the customer type.

You define a subtype by using a CREATE TYPE statement with the UNDER keyword. The following statement creates a new subtype Corp_Customer_objtyp under Customer_objtyp. The type is created as NOT FINAL so that it can have subtypes if we want to add them later.

-- Create Corp_Customer_objtyp example, object-relational model, not sample schema
CREATE TYPE Corp_Customer_objtyp UNDER Customer_objtyp
            (account_mgr_id     NUMBER(6) ) NOT FINAL;
/

When you use a CREATE TYPE statement to create a new subtype, you list only the new attributes and methods that you are adding. The subtype inherits all existing attributes and methods from its base type, so these do not need to be specified. The new attributes and methods are added after the inherited ones. For example, the complete list of attributes for the new Corp_Customer_objtyp subtype looks like this:

By default, you can store instances of a subtype in any column or object table that is of any base type of the subtype. This ability to store subtype instances in a base type slot is called substitutability. Columns and tables are substitutable unless they have been explicitly declared to be NOT SUBSTITUTABLE. The system automatically adds new columns for subtype attributes and another, hidden column for the type ID of the instance stored in each row.

Actually, it is possible to create a subtype of a FINAL type, but first you must use an ALTER TYPE statement to evolve the type from a FINAL type to a NOT FINAL one. If you want existing columns and tables of the altered type to be able to store instances of new subtypes, specify the CASCADE option CONVERT TO SUBSTITUTABLE in the ALTER TYPE statement. See "Type Evolution".

Inserting Subtypes

If a column or object table is substitutable, you can insert into it not only instances of the declared type of the column or table but also instances of any subtype of the declared type. In the case of table Customer_objtab, this means that the table can be used to store information about all kinds of customers, both ordinary and corporate. However, there is one important difference in the way information is inserted for a subtype: you must explicitly specify the subtype's constructor. Use of the constructor is optional only for instances of the declared type of the column or table.

For example, the following statement inserts a new ordinary customer, William Kidd.

-- Insert Data for Ordinary Customer example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
INSERT INTO Customer_objtab
  VALUES (
    3, 'William Kidd',
    Address_objtyp('43 Harbor Drive', 'Redwood Shores', 'CA', '95054'),
    PhoneList_vartyp('650-555-0188'),
    PurchaseOrderList_ntabtyp()
  );

The VALUES clause contains data for each Customer_objtyp attribute but omits the Customer_objtyp constructor. The constructor is optional here because the declared type of the table is Customer_objtyp. For the nested table attribute, the constructor PurchaseOrderList_ntabtyp() creates an empty nested table, but no data is specified for any purchase orders.

Here is a statement that inserts a new corporate customer in the same table. Note the use of the constructor Corp_Customer_objtyp() and the extra data value 531 for the account manager ID:

-- Insert Data for Corporate Customer example
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
INSERT INTO Customer_objtab
  VALUES (
    Corp_Customer_objtyp(   -- Subtype requires a constructor
      4, 'Edward Teach',
      Address_objtyp('65 Marina Blvd', 'San Francisco', 'CA', '94777'),
      PhoneList_vartyp('415-555-0198', '415-555-0199'),
      PurchaseOrderList_ntabtyp(), 531
    )
  );

The following statements insert a purchase order for each of the two new customers. Unlike the statements that insert the new customers, the two statements that insert purchase orders are structurally the same except for the number of line items in the purchase orders:

-- Insert Purchase Order for Ordinary Customer example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
INSERT INTO TABLE (
  SELECT c.PurchaseOrderList_ntab
    FROM Customer_objtab c
    WHERE c.CustName = 'William Kidd'
   )
  VALUES (1021, SYSDATE, SYSDATE + 1,
    LineItemList_ntabtyp(
      LineItem_objtyp(1, MAKE_REF(Stock_objtab, 1535), 2, 10),
      LineItem_objtyp(2, MAKE_REF(Stock_objtab, 1534), 1, 0)
     )
   );

-- Insert Purchase Order for Corporate Customer example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
INSERT INTO TABLE (
  SELECT c.PurchaseOrderList_ntab
    FROM Customer_objtab c
    WHERE c.CustName = 'Edward Teach'
   )
  VALUES (1022, SYSDATE, SYSDATE + 1,
    LineItemList_ntabtyp(
      LineItem_objtyp(1, MAKE_REF(Stock_objtab, 1011), 1, 0),
      LineItem_objtyp(2, MAKE_REF(Stock_objtab, 1004), 3, 0),
      LineItem_objtyp(3, MAKE_REF(Stock_objtab, 1534), 2, 0)
     )
   );

Querying Substitutable Columns

A substitutable column or table can contain data of several data types. This enables you, for example, to retrieve information about all kinds of customers with a single query of the customers table. But you can also retrieve information just about a particular kind of customer, or about a particular attribute of a particular kind of customer.

The following examples show some useful techniques for getting the information you want from a substitutable table or column.

The query in Example A-55 uses a WHERE clause that contains an IS OF predicate to filter out customers that are not some kind of corporate customer. In other words, the query returns all kinds of corporate customers but does not return instances of any other kind of customer:

-- Selecting All Corporate Customers and Their Subtypes example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT c.*
  FROM Customer_objtab c
  WHERE VALUE(c) IS OF (Corp_Customer_objtyp);

The query in Example A-56 is similar to the preceding one except that it adds the ONLY keyword in the IS OF predicate to filter out any subtypes of Corp_Customer_objtyp. Rows are returned only for instances whose most specific type is Corp_Customer_objtyp.

-- Selecting All Corporate Customers with No Subtypes example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT p.PONo
  FROM Customer_objtab c, TABLE(c.PurchaseOrderList_ntab) p
  WHERE VALUE(c) IS OF (ONLY Corp_Customer_objtyp);

The query in Example A-57 uses a TABLE expression to get purchase order numbers (from the nested table of purchase orders). Every kind of customer has this attribute, but the WHERE clause confines the search just to corporate customers:

-- Selecting PONo Just for Corporate Customers example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT p.PONo
  FROM Customer_objtab c, TABLE(c.PurchaseOrderList_ntab) p
  WHERE VALUE(c) IS OF (Corp_Customer_objtyp);

The query in Example A-58 returns data for account manager ID. This is an attribute possessed only by the corporate customer subtype: the declared type of the table lacks it. In the query the TREAT() function is used to cause the system to try to regard or treat each customer as a corporate customer in order to access the subtype attribute Account_mgr_id:

-- Selecting a Subtype Attribute Using the TREAT Function example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT CustName, TREAT(VALUE(c) AS Corp_Customer_objtyp).Account_mgr_id
  FROM Customer_objtab c
  WHERE VALUE(c) IS OF (ONLY Corp_Customer_objtyp);

TREAT() is necessary in Example A-58 because Account_mgr_id is not an attribute of the table's declared type Customer_objtyp. If you simply list the attribute in the SELECT list as if it were, a query like the one in Example A-59 will return the error invalid column name error. This is so even with a WHERE clause that excludes all but instances of Corp_Customer_objtyp. The WHERE clause is not enough here because it merely excludes rows from the result.

-- Selecting a Subtype Attribute Without the TREAT Function example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
-- Following statement returns error, invalid column name for Account_mgr_id
SELECT CustName, Account_mgr_id
  FROM Customer_objtab c
  WHERE VALUE(c) IS OF (ONLY Corp_Customer_objtyp);

Every substitutable column or object table has an associated hidden type-ID column that identifies the type of the instance in each row. You can look up the type ID of a type in the USER_TYPES catalog view.

The function SYS_TYPEID() returns the type ID of a particular instance. The query in Example A-60 uses SYS_TYPEID() and a join on the USER_TYPES catalog view to return the type name of each customer instance in the table Customer_objtab:

-- Discovering the Type of Each Instance example,
-- object-relational model, not sample schema
SELECT c.CustName, u.TYPE_NAME
  FROM Customer_objtab c, USER_TYPES u
  WHERE SYS_TYPEID(VALUE(c)) = u.TYPEID;

For more information on SYS_TYPEID(), VALUE(), and TREAT(), see "Functions and Operators Useful with Objects".

DROP TABLE Customer_objtab;
DROP TABLE PurchaseOrder_objtab;
DROP TABLE Stock_objtab;
PURGE RECYCLEBIN;
DROP TYPE Corp_Customer_objtyp FORCE;
DROP TYPE PurchaseOrderList_ntabtyp FORCE;
DROP TYPE PurchaseOrder_objtyp FORCE;
DROP TYPE LineItemList_ntabtyp FORCE;
DROP TYPE Customer_objtyp FORCE;
DROP TYPE Address_objtyp FORCE;
DROP TYPE PhoneList_vartyp FORCE;
DROP TYPE LineItem_objtyp FORCE;
DROP TYPE StockItem_objtyp FORCE;
SPOOL OFF
COMMIT;